Release: 1.4.51 | Release Date: January 2, 2024

# SQLAlchemy 1.4 Documentation

# Mutation Tracking

Provide support for tracking of in-place changes to scalar values, which are propagated into ORM change events on owning parent objects.

## Establishing Mutability on Scalar Column Values

A typical example of a “mutable” structure is a Python dictionary. Following the example introduced in SQL Datatype Objects, we begin with a custom type that marshals Python dictionaries into JSON strings before being persisted:

    from sqlalchemy.types import TypeDecorator, VARCHAR
    import json

    class JSONEncodedDict(TypeDecorator):
        "Represents an immutable structure as a json-encoded string."

        impl = VARCHAR

        def process_bind_param(self, value, dialect):
            if value is not None:
                value = json.dumps(value)
            return value

        def process_result_value(self, value, dialect):
            if value is not None:
                value = json.loads(value)
            return value

The usage of `json` is only for the purposes of example. The `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable` extension can be used with any type whose target Python type may be mutable, including `PickleType`, `ARRAY`, etc.

When using the `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable` extension, the value itself tracks all parents which reference it. Below, we illustrate a simple version of the `MutableDict` dictionary object, which applies the `Mutable` mixin to a plain Python dictionary:

    from sqlalchemy.ext.mutable import Mutable

    class MutableDict(Mutable, dict):
        @classmethod
        def coerce(cls, key, value):
            "Convert plain dictionaries to MutableDict."

            if not isinstance(value, MutableDict):
                if isinstance(value, dict):
                    return MutableDict(value)

                # this call will raise ValueError
                return Mutable.coerce(key, value)
            else:
                return value

        def __setitem__(self, key, value):
            "Detect dictionary set events and emit change events."

            dict.__setitem__(self, key, value)
            self.changed()

        def __delitem__(self, key):
            "Detect dictionary del events and emit change events."

            dict.__delitem__(self, key)
            self.changed()

The above dictionary class takes the approach of subclassing the Python built-in `dict` to produce a dict subclass which routes all mutation events through `__setitem__`. There are variants on this approach, such as subclassing `UserDict.UserDict` or `collections.MutableMapping`; the part that’s important to this example is that the `Mutable.changed()` method is called whenever an in-place change to the datastructure takes place.

We also redefine the `Mutable.coerce()` method which will be used to convert any values that are not instances of `MutableDict`, such as the plain dictionaries returned by the `json` module, into the appropriate type. Defining this method is optional; we could just as well created our `JSONEncodedDict` such that it always returns an instance of `MutableDict`, and additionally ensured that all calling code uses `MutableDict` explicitly. When `Mutable.coerce()` is not overridden, any values applied to a parent object which are not instances of the mutable type will raise a `ValueError`.

Our new `MutableDict` type offers a class method `Mutable.as_mutable()` which we can use within column metadata to associate with types. This method grabs the given type object or class and associates a listener that will detect all future mappings of this type, applying event listening instrumentation to the mapped attribute. Such as, with classical table metadata:

    from sqlalchemy import Table, Column, Integer

    my_data = Table('my_data', metadata,
        Column('id', Integer, primary_key=True),
        Column('data', MutableDict.as_mutable(JSONEncodedDict))
    )

Above, `Mutable.as_mutable()` returns an instance of `JSONEncodedDict` (if the type object was not an instance already), which will intercept any attributes which are mapped against this type. Below we establish a simple mapping against the `my_data` table:

    from sqlalchemy import mapper

    class MyDataClass(object):
        pass

    # associates mutation listeners with MyDataClass.data
    mapper(MyDataClass, my_data)

The `MyDataClass.data` member will now be notified of in place changes to its value.

There’s no difference in usage when using declarative:

    from sqlalchemy.ext.declarative import declarative_base

    Base = declarative_base()

    class MyDataClass(Base):
        __tablename__ = 'my_data'
        id = Column(Integer, primary_key=True)
        data = Column(MutableDict.as_mutable(JSONEncodedDict))

Any in-place changes to the `MyDataClass.data` member will flag the attribute as “dirty” on the parent object:

    >>> from sqlalchemy.orm import Session

    >>> sess = Session()
    >>> m1 = MyDataClass(data={'value1':'foo'})
    >>> sess.add(m1)
    >>> sess.commit()

    >>> m1.data['value1'] = 'bar'
    >>> assert m1 in sess.dirty
    True

The `MutableDict` can be associated with all future instances of `JSONEncodedDict` in one step, using `Mutable.associate_with()`. This is similar to `Mutable.as_mutable()` except it will intercept all occurrences of `MutableDict` in all mappings unconditionally, without the need to declare it individually:

    MutableDict.associate_with(JSONEncodedDict)

    class MyDataClass(Base):
        __tablename__ = 'my_data'
        id = Column(Integer, primary_key=True)
        data = Column(JSONEncodedDict)

### Supporting Pickling

The key to the `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable` extension relies upon the placement of a `weakref.WeakKeyDictionary` upon the value object, which stores a mapping of parent mapped objects keyed to the attribute name under which they are associated with this value. `WeakKeyDictionary` objects are not picklable, due to the fact that they contain weakrefs and function callbacks. In our case, this is a good thing, since if this dictionary were picklable, it could lead to an excessively large pickle size for our value objects that are pickled by themselves outside of the context of the parent. The developer responsibility here is only to provide a `__getstate__` method that excludes the `MutableBase._parents()` collection from the pickle stream:

    class MyMutableType(Mutable):
        def __getstate__(self):
            d = self.__dict__.copy()
            d.pop('_parents', None)
            return d

With our dictionary example, we need to return the contents of the dict itself (and also restore them on __setstate__):

    class MutableDict(Mutable, dict):
        # ....

        def __getstate__(self):
            return dict(self)

        def __setstate__(self, state):
            self.update(state)

In the case that our mutable value object is pickled as it is attached to one or more parent objects that are also part of the pickle, the `Mutable` mixin will re-establish the `Mutable._parents` collection on each value object as the owning parents themselves are unpickled.

### Receiving Events

The `AttributeEvents.modified()` event handler may be used to receive an event when a mutable scalar emits a change event. This event handler is called when the `flag_modified()` function is called from within the mutable extension:

    from sqlalchemy.ext.declarative import declarative_base
    from sqlalchemy import event

    Base = declarative_base()

    class MyDataClass(Base):
        __tablename__ = 'my_data'
        id = Column(Integer, primary_key=True)
        data = Column(MutableDict.as_mutable(JSONEncodedDict))

    @event.listens_for(MyDataClass.data, "modified")
    def modified_json(instance):
        print("json value modified:", instance.data)

## Establishing Mutability on Composites

Composites are a special ORM feature which allow a single scalar attribute to be assigned an object value which represents information “composed” from one or more columns from the underlying mapped table. The usual example is that of a geometric “point”, and is introduced in Composite Column Types.

As is the case with `Mutable`, the user-defined composite class subclasses `MutableComposite` as a mixin, and detects and delivers change events to its parents via the `MutableComposite.changed()` method. In the case of a composite class, the detection is usually via the usage of Python descriptors (i.e. `@property`), or alternatively via the special Python method `__setattr__()`. Below we expand upon the `Point` class introduced in Composite Column Types to subclass `MutableComposite` and to also route attribute set events via `__setattr__` to the `MutableComposite.changed()` method:

    from sqlalchemy.ext.mutable import MutableComposite

    class Point(MutableComposite):
        def __init__(self, x, y):
            self.x = x
            self.y = y

        def __setattr__(self, key, value):
            "Intercept set events"

            # set the attribute
            object.__setattr__(self, key, value)

            # alert all parents to the change
            self.changed()

        def __composite_values__(self):
            return self.x, self.y

        def __eq__(self, other):
            return isinstance(other, Point) and \
                other.x == self.x and \
                other.y == self.y

        def __ne__(self, other):
            return not self.__eq__(other)

The `MutableComposite` class uses a Python metaclass to automatically establish listeners for any usage of `composite()` that specifies our `Point` type. Below, when `Point` is mapped to the `Vertex` class, listeners are established which will route change events from `Point` objects to each of the `Vertex.start` and `Vertex.end` attributes:

    from sqlalchemy.orm import composite, mapper
    from sqlalchemy import Table, Column

    vertices = Table('vertices', metadata,
        Column('id', Integer, primary_key=True),
        Column('x1', Integer),
        Column('y1', Integer),
        Column('x2', Integer),
        Column('y2', Integer),
        )

    class Vertex(object):
        pass

    mapper(Vertex, vertices, properties={
        'start': composite(Point, vertices.c.x1, vertices.c.y1),
        'end': composite(Point, vertices.c.x2, vertices.c.y2)
    })

Any in-place changes to the `Vertex.start` or `Vertex.end` members will flag the attribute as “dirty” on the parent object:

    >>> from sqlalchemy.orm import Session

    >>> sess = Session()
    >>> v1 = Vertex(start=Point(3, 4), end=Point(12, 15))
    >>> sess.add(v1)
    >>> sess.commit()

    >>> v1.end.x = 8
    >>> assert v1 in sess.dirty
    True

### Coercing Mutable Composites

The `MutableBase.coerce()` method is also supported on composite types. In the case of `MutableComposite`, the `MutableBase.coerce()` method is only called for attribute set operations, not load operations. Overriding the `MutableBase.coerce()` method is essentially equivalent to using a `validates()` validation routine for all attributes which make use of the custom composite type:

    class Point(MutableComposite):
        # other Point methods
        # ...

        def coerce(cls, key, value):
            if isinstance(value, tuple):
                value = Point(*value)
            elif not isinstance(value, Point):
                raise ValueError("tuple or Point expected")
            return value

### Supporting Pickling

As is the case with `Mutable`, the `MutableComposite` helper class uses a `weakref.WeakKeyDictionary` available via the `MutableBase._parents()` attribute which isn’t picklable. If we need to pickle instances of `Point` or its owning class `Vertex`, we at least need to define a `__getstate__` that doesn’t include the `_parents` dictionary. Below we define both a `__getstate__` and a `__setstate__` that package up the minimal form of our `Point` class:

    class Point(MutableComposite):
        # ...

        def __getstate__(self):
            return self.x, self.y

        def __setstate__(self, state):
            self.x, self.y = state

As with `Mutable`, the `MutableComposite` augments the pickling process of the parent’s object-relational state so that the `MutableBase._parents()` collection is restored to all `Point` objects.

## API Reference

Object Name | Description
--- | ---
Mutable | Mixin that defines transparent propagation of change events to a parent object.
MutableBase | Common base class to `Mutable` and `MutableComposite`.
MutableComposite | Mixin that defines transparent propagation of change events on a SQLAlchemy “composite” object to its owning parent or parents.
MutableDict | A dictionary type that implements `Mutable`.
MutableList | A list type that implements `Mutable`.
MutableSet | A set type that implements `Mutable`.

class sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableBase

  Members

  _parents, coerce()

  Common base class to `Mutable` and `MutableComposite`.

  attribute `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableBase.`_parents

    Dictionary of parent object’s `InstanceState`->attribute name on the parent.

    This attribute is a so-called “memoized” property. It initializes itself with a new `weakref.WeakKeyDictionary` the first time it is accessed, returning the same object upon subsequent access.

    Changed in version 1.4: the `InstanceState` is now used as the key in the weak dictionary rather than the instance itself.

  classmethod `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableBase.`coerce(key, value)

    Given a value, coerce it into the target type.

    Can be overridden by custom subclasses to coerce incoming data into a particular type.

    By default, raises `ValueError`.

    This method is called in different scenarios depending on if the parent class is of type `Mutable` or of type `MutableComposite`. In the case of the former, it is called for both attribute-set operations as well as during ORM loading operations. For the latter, it is only called during attribute-set operations; the mechanics of the `composite()` construct handle coercion during load operations.

    Parameters:

      - key – string name of the ORM-mapped attribute being set.

      - value – the incoming value.

    Returns:

      the method should return the coerced value, or raise `ValueError` if the coercion cannot be completed.

class sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.Mutable

  Mixin that defines transparent propagation of change events to a parent object.

  See the example in Establishing Mutability on Scalar Column Values for usage information.

  Members

  _get_listen_keys(), _listen_on_attribute(), _parents, as_mutable(), associate_with(), associate_with_attribute(), changed(), coerce()

  Class signature

  class `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.Mutable` (`sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableBase`)

  classmethod `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.Mutable.`_get_listen_keys(attribute)

    inherited from the `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableBase._get_listen_keys` method of `MutableBase`

    Given a descriptor attribute, return a `set()` of the attribute keys which indicate a change in the state of this attribute.

    This is normally just `set([attribute.key])`, but can be overridden to provide for additional keys. E.g. a `MutableComposite` augments this set with the attribute keys associated with the columns that comprise the composite value.

    This collection is consulted in the case of intercepting the `InstanceEvents.refresh()` and `InstanceEvents.refresh_flush()` events, which pass along a list of attribute names that have been refreshed; the list is compared against this set to determine if action needs to be taken.

    New in version 1.0.5.

  classmethod `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.Mutable.`_listen_on_attribute(attribute, coerce, parent_cls)

    inherited from the `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableBase._listen_on_attribute` method of `MutableBase`

    Establish this type as a mutation listener for the given mapped descriptor.

  attribute `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.Mutable.`_parents

    inherited from the `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableBase._parents` attribute of `MutableBase`

    Dictionary of parent object’s `InstanceState`->attribute name on the parent.

    This attribute is a so-called “memoized” property. It initializes itself with a new `weakref.WeakKeyDictionary` the first time it is accessed, returning the same object upon subsequent access.

    Changed in version 1.4: the `InstanceState` is now used as the key in the weak dictionary rather than the instance itself.

  classmethod `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.Mutable.`as_mutable(sqltype)

    Associate a SQL type with this mutable Python type.

    This establishes listeners that will detect ORM mappings against the given type, adding mutation event trackers to those mappings.

    The type is returned, unconditionally as an instance, so that `as_mutable()` can be used inline:

        Table('mytable', metadata,
            Column('id', Integer, primary_key=True),
            Column('data', MyMutableType.as_mutable(PickleType))
        )

    Note that the returned type is always an instance, even if a class is given, and that only columns which are declared specifically with that type instance receive additional instrumentation.

    To associate a particular mutable type with all occurrences of a particular type, use the `Mutable.associate_with()` classmethod of the particular `Mutable` subclass to establish a global association.

    Warning

    The listeners established by this method are global to all mappers, and are not garbage collected. Only use `as_mutable()` for types that are permanent to an application, not with ad-hoc types else this will cause unbounded growth in memory usage.

  classmethod `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.Mutable.`associate_with(sqltype)

    Associate this wrapper with all future mapped columns of the given type.

    This is a convenience method that calls `associate_with_attribute` automatically.

    Warning

    The listeners established by this method are global to all mappers, and are not garbage collected. Only use `associate_with()` for types that are permanent to an application, not with ad-hoc types else this will cause unbounded growth in memory usage.

  classmethod `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.Mutable.`associate_with_attribute(attribute)

    Establish this type as a mutation listener for the given mapped descriptor.

  method `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.Mutable.`changed()

    Subclasses should call this method whenever change events occur.

  classmethod `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.Mutable.`coerce(key, value)

    inherited from the `MutableBase.coerce()` method of `MutableBase`

    Given a value, coerce it into the target type.

    Can be overridden by custom subclasses to coerce incoming data into a particular type.

    By default, raises `ValueError`.

    This method is called in different scenarios depending on if the parent class is of type `Mutable` or of type `MutableComposite`. In the case of the former, it is called for both attribute-set operations as well as during ORM loading operations. For the latter, it is only called during attribute-set operations; the mechanics of the `composite()` construct handle coercion during load operations.

    Parameters:

      - key – string name of the ORM-mapped attribute being set.

      - value – the incoming value.

    Returns:

      the method should return the coerced value, or raise `ValueError` if the coercion cannot be completed.

class sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableComposite

  Mixin that defines transparent propagation of change events on a SQLAlchemy “composite” object to its owning parent or parents.

  See the example in Establishing Mutability on Composites for usage information.

  Members

  changed()

  Class signature

  class `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableComposite` (`sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableBase`)

  method `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableComposite.`changed()

    Subclasses should call this method whenever change events occur.

class sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableDict

  A dictionary type that implements `Mutable`.

  The `MutableDict` object implements a dictionary that will emit change events to the underlying mapping when the contents of the dictionary are altered, including when values are added or removed.

  Note that `MutableDict` does not apply mutable tracking to the values themselves inside the dictionary. Therefore it is not a sufficient solution for the use case of tracking deep changes to a recursive dictionary structure, such as a JSON structure. To support this use case, build a subclass of `MutableDict` that provides appropriate coercion to the values placed in the dictionary so that they too are “mutable”, and emit events up to their parent structure.

  See also

  `MutableList`

  `MutableSet`

  Members

  clear(), coerce(), pop(), popitem(), setdefault(), update()

  Class signature

  class `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableDict` (`sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.Mutable`, `builtins.dict`)

  method `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableDict.`clear() → None. Remove all items from D.
  classmethod `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableDict.`coerce(key, value)

    Convert plain dictionary to instance of this class.

  method `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableDict.`pop(k[, d]) → v, remove specified key and return the corresponding value.

    If the key is not found, return the default if given; otherwise, raise a KeyError.

  method `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableDict.`popitem()

    Remove and return a (key, value) pair as a 2-tuple.

    Pairs are returned in LIFO (last-in, first-out) order. Raises KeyError if the dict is empty.

  method `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableDict.`setdefault(key, value)

    Insert key with a value of default if key is not in the dictionary.

    Return the value for key if key is in the dictionary, else default.

  method `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableDict.`update([E, ]**F) → None. Update D from dict/iterable E and F.

    If E is present and has a .keys() method, then does: for k in E: D[k] = E[k] If E is present and lacks a .keys() method, then does: for k, v in E: D[k] = v In either case, this is followed by: for k in F: D[k] = F[k]

class sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableList(iterable=(), /)

  A list type that implements `Mutable`.

  The `MutableList` object implements a list that will emit change events to the underlying mapping when the contents of the list are altered, including when values are added or removed.

  Note that `MutableList` does not apply mutable tracking to the values themselves inside the list. Therefore it is not a sufficient solution for the use case of tracking deep changes to a recursive mutable structure, such as a JSON structure. To support this use case, build a subclass of `MutableList` that provides appropriate coercion to the values placed in the dictionary so that they too are “mutable”, and emit events up to their parent structure.

  New in version 1.1.

  See also

  `MutableDict`

  `MutableSet`

  Members

  append(), clear(), coerce(), extend(), insert(), pop(), remove(), reverse(), sort()

  Class signature

  class `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableList` (`sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.Mutable`, `builtins.list`)

  method `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableList.`append(x)

    Append object to the end of the list.

  method `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableList.`clear()

    Remove all items from list.

  classmethod `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableList.`coerce(index, value)

    Convert plain list to instance of this class.

  method `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableList.`extend(x)

    Extend list by appending elements from the iterable.

  method `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableList.`insert(i, x)

    Insert object before index.

  method `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableList.`pop(*arg)

    Remove and return item at index (default last).

    Raises IndexError if list is empty or index is out of range.

  method `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableList.`remove(i)

    Remove first occurrence of value.

    Raises ValueError if the value is not present.

  method `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableList.`reverse()

    Reverse IN PLACE.

  method `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableList.`sort(**kw)

    Sort the list in ascending order and return None.

    The sort is in-place (i.e. the list itself is modified) and stable (i.e. the order of two equal elements is maintained).

    If a key function is given, apply it once to each list item and sort them, ascending or descending, according to their function values.

    The reverse flag can be set to sort in descending order.

class sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableSet

  A set type that implements `Mutable`.

  The `MutableSet` object implements a set that will emit change events to the underlying mapping when the contents of the set are altered, including when values are added or removed.

  Note that `MutableSet` does not apply mutable tracking to the values themselves inside the set. Therefore it is not a sufficient solution for the use case of tracking deep changes to a recursive mutable structure. To support this use case, build a subclass of `MutableSet` that provides appropriate coercion to the values placed in the dictionary so that they too are “mutable”, and emit events up to their parent structure.

  New in version 1.1.

  See also

  `MutableDict`

  `MutableList`

  Members

  add(), clear(), coerce(), difference_update(), discard(), intersection_update(), pop(), remove(), symmetric_difference_update(), update()

  Class signature

  class `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableSet` (`sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.Mutable`, `builtins.set`)

  method `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableSet.`add(elem)

    Add an element to a set.

    This has no effect if the element is already present.

  method `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableSet.`clear()

    Remove all elements from this set.

  classmethod `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableSet.`coerce(index, value)

    Convert plain set to instance of this class.

  method `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableSet.`difference_update(*arg)

    Remove all elements of another set from this set.

  method `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableSet.`discard(elem)

    Remove an element from a set if it is a member.

    If the element is not a member, do nothing.

  method `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableSet.`intersection_update(*arg)

    Update a set with the intersection of itself and another.

  method `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableSet.`pop(*arg)

    Remove and return an arbitrary set element. Raises KeyError if the set is empty.

  method `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableSet.`remove(elem)

    Remove an element from a set; it must be a member.

    If the element is not a member, raise a KeyError.

  method `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableSet.`symmetric_difference_update(*arg)

    Update a set with the symmetric difference of itself and another.

  method `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable.MutableSet.`update(*arg)

    Update a set with the union of itself and others.